The 29-Ariticle Ordinance for the More Effective Governance of Tibet [Photo/Osaka.chineseconsulate.org]

The signing of the 29-Ariticle Ordinance for the More Effective Governance of Tibet

In 1788, on an excuse of a problem in exchanging money and a higher tax imposed on trade, the Ghurkas, a branch of Nepalese tribes, dispatched over 3,000 soldiers to occupy Jilong, Nyelamo, Zongkar in the border areas of Xigaze. Upon hearing the news, Emperor Qianlong sent General Erhui of Chengdu, Military Commander of Sichuan, to rush troops to Tibet to fight the invaders. At the same time, Bazhong was also sent to Tibet in the capacity of Imperial Commissioner to meet and consult with General Erhui in handling the aftermath of the event.

In July 1791, the Ghurkas, on an excuse of breaking the agreement on the Tibetan side, invaded Tibet again. Emperor Qianlong decided to send General Fu Kang’an, Minister Hai Lancha, and the Valiant Commander, leading an army of over 170,000 soldiers composed of Manchu, Han, Monol, Hui, Daur, Ewenk, Oroqen and other ethnic groups, along three routes to fight the invaders. With the support of the Tibetan people, the Qing troops recovered the lost Tibetan areas in May of 1792.

On the instruction of Emperor Qianlong, from 1792 to 1793, after long deliberation, General Fu Kang’an, jointed with Sun Shiyi, Huiling, High Commissioner Helin and other ministers, to work out related ordinances concerning how to administer Tibet, and submitted them to the imperial court for approval. Among them was the famous 29-Article Ordinance for More Effective Governance of Tibet, highlights of which are as follows:

(A) The system of administrative affairs. The High Commissioners are charged with supervising Tibetan affairs. They enjoy a position equal to the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni. Officials below the rank of Galoon, common clerks and monks are subject to the High Commissioners and follow their instructions. The High Commissioners and the Dalai Lama will jointly decide appointment and dismissal of Galoon and Deibon. They will meet to choose two candidates to be submitted to the emperor for selection and approval. Other military and civil Tibetan officials of the Xigaze area are jointly appointed by the High Commissioners and the Dalai Lama, and are awarded with certificates of appointment in the three languages of Manchurian, Tibetan and Han Chinese. Officers of the Ngari area will be jointly appointed by the High Commissioners and the Panchen Erdeni.

(B) The system of religious affairs. The reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Erdeni and various Hotogtu Rinpochs must follow the procedure of "drawing lots from the golden urn" under the supervision of the High Commissioners. The name, birth date of several candidates should be written in the three languages of Manchurian, Tibetan and Han Chinese on one side of three ivory slips. Then, before the public, the slips are put into the golden urn, from which one is drawn out. Then, the candidates whose name is on the selected ivory slip is confirmed as the Dalai Lama and reported to the imperial court for approval. The selections of Rinpoche of various Tibetan monasteries will be jointly confirmed by the Dalai Lama, the High Commissioners and the Hotogtu Rinpoche, and those confirmed are awarded with the certificate of appointment stamped with the seal of the three people. If a Mongolian prince of Qinghai wants to invite a Tibetan Rinpoche, he should get the written permission of the Xi’ning Minister and the passport delivered by the High Commissioners stationed in Tibet. A Buddhist monk leaving for pilgrimage outside Tibet should also get a passport for their travel. If anyone travels without official permission, the officer in charge will face severe penalty one the case has been established. The Rinpoches and lamas under the administration of the Hotogtu Rinpoche should be registered in two book forms, one in the hands of the High Commissioners, and the other held by the Dalai Lama.

General Fu Kang’an [Photo/Xinhua]

(C) The system of military affairs. Establishing a regular army of 3000 men, among whom 1,000 will be stationed in the Xigaze and Ngari areas respectively, and 500 men each stationed in Jamze and Dingri respectively. Whenever there is need, an army is to be mobilized throughout Tibet. The recruited men should be registered in two books retained by the High Commissioners’ Office and the Gaxag Government respectively. Military officers of different ranks are selected from young and capable persons by the High Commissioners and the Dalai Lama, and are awarded with a certificate of appointment. Every spring and autumn, the High Commissioners will patrol and review troops in the Xigaze and Nagri areas. The local governments of Tibet shoulder the responsibility to provide provisions and pay for the troops and hand these to the High Commissioners, who are responsible for distributing them to each army every spring and autumn. The ammunition of the army is made and handed out at Gongbo according to the official document of the High Commissioners Office sent by the Gaxag Government.

(D) The system of judicial affairs. Ordinary cases should be handled in accordance with former laws and regulations, but they must be handled impartially whether the cases are big or small, and important or not. All punishments of prisoners or confiscation of prisoners’ property must be under registered and reported to the High Commissioners Office for approval. No one, including officers from the Han, Galoons and Zongboins, are allowed to hold another’s property, or bully and oppress other people by abusing their power. Anyone can report the misdeeds of imperial officers to the High Commissioners and the accused is to be examined carefully without exceptions.

(E) The system of foreign affairs. On the imperial court has the power to handle foreign affairs. All foreign affairs have to be handled by the Qing High Commissioners. All documents between foreign countries with Tibet have to be checked by the High Commissioners and replied through consultations between the High Commissioners and the Dalai Lama. The reply to the Ghurkas on bilateral contacts have to be handled in accordance with the High Commissioners’ instructions; the tributes offered by foreign countries and letters writing to the Dalai Lama have to be reviewed by the High Commissioners; replies to letters from foreign countries paying tribute to the imperial court have to be worked out by the High Commissioners. All Galoons are forbidden to write to or reply to foreign countries, and when Galoons receive letters from foreign countries, they have to present these letters to the High Commissioners and the Dalai Lama for review and reply. Foreign travelers and businessmen in Tibet must be registered and the name list presented to the High Commissioners Office, which will issue necessary passports. Posts will be set up in Jamze and Dingri to exam any travelers. Foreigners who want to enter Tibet must present and report their name and the number of people to the related office, then wait for approval from the High Commissioners Office. They must be subject to examination and enter at designated ports. Tibetans who go to Ghurka territory for molding Buddhas must hold a passport issued by the High Commissioners Office and return within a designated time.

Drawing lots from the golden urn [Photo/Osaka.chineseconsulate.org]

(F) The system of finance and taxation. Gold and silver coin in Tibet should be minted by the special department established by the High Commissioners in accordance with centrally set proportion and exchange rate of gold and silver coinage. No neighboring countries’ coins are permitted to circulate in Tibet. All tax items and revenues in Tibet must be subject to examination by the High Commissioner, who will report to the imperial court every spring and autumn. The import tax imposed on rice, salt, and other items in Jilong and Nyelamo should maintain their former stipulation. Local governments of Tibet are forbidden to increase taxes unless they get permission from the High Commissioners. All local taxes and ula labor-free licenses to those who have rendered great service and become qualified exemption must be approved and issued by the Dalai Lama and the High Commissioners.

The 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet is an important legal document established by the central government of the Qing Dynasty in order to exercise full power over Tibet, on the foundation of summing up the experiences of former dynasties especially after the Yuan Dynasty to rule Tibet. It showed that Qing Dynasty had introduced a comparatively mature and complete administrative system for Tibet. Its establishment and implementation played an excellent role in strengthening and developing good relations between the central government of the Qing Dynasty and the local government of Tibet, forging stronger connections between all ethnic groups throughout the country, consolidating the borders of southwest China and preventing invasion, stabilizing social order and developing social production, as well as improving the basic living standards of the Tibetan people.

The token of the High Commissioner [Photo/Osaka.chineseconsulate.org]

The historical truth about the "Army" and "Snow Mountain Lion Flag"

Some self-exiled Tibetans claim, "we have our own national flag, army and currency. Tibet is worthy of the name of an independent country." However, the historical truth proves that their theory is totally wrong.

The third item of the 29-Ariticle Ordinance for the More Effective Governance of Tibet stipulated that, "with the permission of the emperor, the local regular army is to be 3,000 men strong." This 3,000-man army was the "Tibetan Army." Both regular training and command in battle called for an army flag, so the Tibetan army flag was designed. This is the history of the "Snow Mountain Lion Flag" and the "Army."